Standards: OSHA standards requires employees to "furnish to each of his employees a place of employment which is free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm..." Section 5(a)(2) requires employers to "comply with occupational safety and health standards." In 2000, The Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act was signed into law. OSHA required and requires employers to identify, evaluate and implement safer medical procedures such as maintaining a sharps injury log for needle disposal. Employers must identify workers at risk and provide necessary materials to keep them safe such as safety needles, gloves, masks and other protective equipment. Employers must also provide medical treatment to those who are exposed to bloodborne pathogens.

Requirements: The OSHA standards cover private sector workers in all states. Employees must be trained and review the exposure control plan every 12 months. The training must be during working hours at no cost to the employee. Not only are the procedures required in the health care profession but also in public schools. Safety equipment must be provided. Employers must continually evaluate and select safer needles, gloves and all equipment. Equipment must be provided to employees and be in good quality, readily available and in appropriate sizes. After an exposure, all equipment and working surfaces must be cleaned and decontaminated after contact with blood/fluids.

Vaccination: Employers must make the hepatitis B vaccine available to those who could be exposed. The worker may decline the vaccination but must sign a waiver. If the employee changes his/her mind about the shot, then the employer must provide it at any time at not cost.

Exposures: If a worker is exposed to someone else's blood, then they must receive medical attention and also confidential screening for contamination and any follow-up treatments. The treatments may include antibiotics to prevent infections. A blood sample (with the employees consent) may be taken to test for HIV or hepatitis. This a daunting thought, but exposures are possible if procedures are not followed and even if they are followed.

Non-Compliance: What happens if an employer doesn't comply with OSHA standards? Penalties can go up to $70,000 depending on the severity of the violation. First-time violations and mild to moderate in nature can bring a fine of $7,000. Repeat offenders up to $70,000. All businesses with employees must display a federal or state OSHA poster that educates employees on safety and their health rights.

Inspections: OSHA conducts inspections in the workplaces where blood exposure is possible. They look for accidents that could happen, the employer's record, non-compliance complaints, referrals, employers that consistently have reports of high exposure rates and whether there is a need for follow-up inspections.

Precautions: If you work in an environment where a blood exposure is possible, it is wise to follow all procedures that are in place to protect you. By avoiding contact with someone's bodily fluids or blood, exposure won't be possible. Wear gloves, goggles and face shields if you are in the medical professions. If you only need gloves for a small exposure, then remove them properly. After tending the bloody wound, remove one glove while both gloves are still on your hands. When one glove is removed, carefully slip your hand inside the other glove and turn in inside out as you remove it. All blood soaked garments, gloves, etc. should be disposed of properly. Employers should have disposal bags provided by OSHA to place the soiled garments, dressings and gloves in for proper removal. Actually, there are some bodily fluids that do not require such precautions such as feces, nasal secretions, urine, throw-up, perspiration and spit. Saliva in the dental setting could be contaminated with blood so in this case the dentist should take precautions.

Needle-removers: Exposure to bloodborne pathogens is a reality in the healthcare profession especially with needles. The Needlestick Safety Act (2000) and the 2001 Bloodborne Pathogens Standard mandated the use of safety devices and needle-removers. There has since been an increase in the development of safety devices and needle removers. Most hospitals in the United States follow safety regulations to ensure their nurses are safe from bloodborne pathogen exposure.

OSHA provides training manuals and reference materials to educate employers and employees about the hazards of bloodborne pathogen exposure. These governmental standards should be followed and taken with the utmost seriousness in the workplace. Hepatitis and HIV are just two of the possible diseases and perhaps the most common that may be spread through exposure. Remember, if you work in a risking environment your employer is required to give training to guard against pathogen exposure once a year.

• Accessibility: According to doctors, it is hard for humans to become contaminated with bird flu. However, if there was a major outbreak, the virus could eventually mutate into a form that can spread from one human to another. If this were to happen, we would face an epidemic like the Spanish influenza that occurred in 1918 and 1919.
• Signs: Bird flu symptoms can be rather complex. There are a number of related symptoms that you may feel. And not all bird flu strains work the same. If you have a pet bird and notice he has ruffled feathers or reduced egg production, this may be a sign he caught the bird flu. However, if your bird is healthy one day and dead the next, he may have gotten the full effect of the virus. The only problem with this virus, is scientist don't know how it will affect humans. There have been cases in Africa and some European countries where people have died from bird flu symptoms. If a human were to contract the flu, symptoms have ranged from a mild eye infection to more serious complications. But the most common symptoms seem to include a cough, fever, sore throat, and muscle aches. Doctors warn that if people get the (A) H5N1 virus strain, the person can die.
• Causes: The most valid reason for getting the bird flu is because the body's natural defense mechanism cannot stop the virus from attacking the cells in the body. The virus becomes quickly immune to the vaccines that are developed, leaving the body exposed to such dangers. As for bird flu, the birds that become infected swarm around chickens, turkeys, and geese. They then pass it on to these birds. Then humans touch these infected birds and get contaminated.
• Risks involved: The greatest risk to humans is if they come in contact with sick birds or surfaces that are infected with the virus. If humans were to touch the bird's feathers, saliva, or get droppings on them, they could become contaminated with the flu.

There are two forms of the virus: low and high virulence. If a bird has the low pathogenic form, the bird may only experience symptoms as ruffled feathers and a drop in egg production. However the higher pathogenic state causes death within 48 hours.

At this time, there are many different strains of the virus. Right now there are 25 known types of the virus strain. In normal circumstances, the bird flu or influenza does not cause harm to humans. But there have been cases of humans getting symptoms of the virus and even dying from it. These humans who did get the virus had come in direct contact with infected birds or areas of contamination. So far there has been no vaccine to fight against the virus, since most of these viruses mutate and become immune to the vaccines. A French vaccine maker has produced what may be a vaccine for the virus, but further study is needed to confirm its effectiveness.

• Signs: Because there are so many strains of the bird flu virus, it is difficult to pin down the exact cause or sign for it. As a matter of fact, scientists don't rightly know how the bird flu will affect humans, since up to know not too many humans have been infected. But the ones that were infected, a common ground was reached as to what symptoms are possible. These include a cough, fever, sore throat, and muscle aches. Doctors warn that if people get the (A) H5N1 virus strain, the person can die.
• Causes: The only real cause for the bird flu virus is the fact the body's defenses can't stop the virus from attacking the cells in the body. All the vaccines that are provided don't work because the virus mutates and becomes immune to it quickly. If there are humans who are exposed to chickens or turkeys that are infected, the humans will also become infected. Basically, if humans come in contact with the infected bird's saliva, nasal discharges, or droppings, the human can get the virus.
• Risks factors: The major risk factor is by touching sick or infected birds, or touching the surface of where these birds touched. The only people who are susceptible to this flu virus are those who have direct contact with infected birds. These could be children, since they do play outside a lot, and those who have farms where they grow chickens and turkeys.

If you get the virus, you may experience shortness of breath because the lungs become filled with fluid. But the worse case scenario, since the bird flu virus hasn't been known to attack humans on a consistent basis yet, is that virus could mutate and take on a more human type strain. If this were to occur, this could make the virus highly contagious and, with no possible vaccine available to stop it, lethal. Thank goodness this has not happened. The only cases that did occur were limited to one particular area and haven't gone beyond this. But there is still concern. And health officials are monitoring this very carefully just in case.

As for treatment, right now the French vaccine is not available yet and supposedly won't be ready till late 2006. So the best source of treatment is the flu drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu). This is a neuraminidase inhibitor that prevents the virus from escaping its host cell. At least it is hopeful this will help contain the virus until the French vaccine is ready.

Here are some of the questions that you need answered to help you sort through all of the information about Mad Cow Disease and how it can affect you:

• What is Mad Cow Disease? Mad Cow Disease is actually called Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy, and it is caused by prions (proteins) crossing between species - such as from a cow to humans. Unfortunately, normal, uninfected prions occur naturally in the human body, so the body does not recognize them as something necessary to fight. And since they are proteins, which are not alive, they can't be killed.
• How do you get Mad Cow Disease? As a human, you actually can't get Mad Cow - it is disease in cows. The disease that people are really talking about when they refer to a development of Mad Cow Disease in humans is a variant of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). The variant is notated as vCJD.
• What are the symptoms of Mad Cow Disease? When vCJD begins to infect the body, it starts killing neurons in the brain and several symptoms appear, all neurological, since CJD is a disease of the brain. Some of the symptoms include insomnia, depression, changes in behavior and attitude, confusion and memory problems, sight, loss of coordination, dementia, myoclonus, the loss of all mental and physical capabilities, a coma, and death.
• Is there any way to prevent Mad Cow Disease? Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, the disease that results from the exposure of a human to Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (Mad Cow Disease), is very extremely rare. However, there are some steps that you can take to make sure that you are not exposed to a greater risk of vCJD.

One of the reasons that Mad Cow Disease is so difficult to understand is that prions are not fully understood. They are proteins, which are not alive, so they can't be killed. They can be subjected to conditions (like severe heat) that can render them useless, but this won't work on food because it would destroy the food too. Though they have the potential to become dangerous to the body, prions are not necessarily dangerous (so the body doesn't try to get rid of them). Also, a bad prion can make normal prions become bad as well when it comes into contact with them. Biochemists are attempting to learn more about prions and how they work so that they will in turn know more about Mad Cow Disease.

There are some people whose bodies predispose them to contracting a disease like CJD or vCJD; they may be more at risk for what people commonly call "Mad Cow." The Creutzfeldt-Jakob actually occurs randomly anyways in about 1 out of every million people. vCJD (Mad Cow) can be passed on through prions (proteins) by tissue implants, blood transfusion, or blood products (like beef).

Unfortunately, scientists do not know how much infected beef you would have to eat to contract vCJD; several types of meat and by-products can carry the infections prions. Although processing foods in a certain way can destroy these prions, normal cooking will not do it.

vCJD is not contagious; you cannot get it from your spouse or friend who has the disease. It has to be contracted through something like a medical procedure accidentally moving the infected prions into the new body, eating contaminated meat, or in another similar way.

Variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob is a difficult disease to diagnose since it is rare and has a long incubation period (from several months to several years). So when someone is first infected, it may take a long time for them to contract the actual disease. When vCJD begins to infect the body, it starts killing neurons in the brain and several symptoms appear, all neurological since CJD is a disease of the brain. It may begin with some insomnia, depression, changes in behavior and attitude, confusion and memory problems, sight, loss of coordination, and other subtle and "explainable" problems. Later, the infected person will develop dementia and myoclonus (jerking movements). In the most advanced stages of the vCJD, the infected person loses all mental and physical capabilities, falls into a coma, and dies. Generally, the disease takes about one year to run its full course.

However, there are some steps that you can take to make sure that you are not exposed to a greater risk of vCJD. Here are some steps to follow:

• The brain and ground products are the parts of a cow that are most likely to carry the infection. By cutting out brain, hot dogs, bologna, or certain lunchmeats from your diet, you can reduce the possibility of exposure to the disease.
• However, it is also possible for the muscle to have been infected with the disease, although it would have much fewer infected prions in it, and thus you would probably have to eat much more to contract it. However, cutting beef out of your diet is always an option.
• Don't worry about milk products; scientists believe that these are completely safe.
• Refuse to eat processed meat that you cannot figure out where it came from. Beef purchased in the store may or may not indicate its source. Know the origins of your meat products! Eating steak, burgers, or anything else made from an uninfected herd is perfectly safe.

So, what exactly is the prostate? The prostate is a male sex organ essential to reproduction that is part glandular and part muscle. It is about the size of a walnut located in the pelvis. It lies behind the pubic bone, below the bladder, in front of the rectum and surrounding the urethra. The prostate is divided into three main chambers, or lobes, with a center lobe and two lobes on each side. During a rectal exam, the doctor can feel one of the side lobes called the peripheral zone. This is an important exam because most prostate cancers originate in this area of the prostate. It is very rare for cancer to form in the other side lobe, called the transition zone, but the transition lobe is the only zone where benign prostatic hyperplasia (BHP) develops. The central zone is where the seminal vesicles are connected to the prostate, and it is uncommon that any diseases or conditions arise in this part of the prostate.

The prostate is responsible for secreting a fluid that makes up part of the male's seminal fluid, which is the fluid that carries sperm through ejaculation. The sperm are mixed with the fluid after the testicles carry the sperm to the prostate and they are combined with the seminal vesicle fluid.

There are several clinical conditions that a prostate can be diagnosed with that are not cancerous such as infections, inflammations or an enlarged prostate. These problems are very common among men of all ages and can be treated.

Because the prostate surrounds the urethra, sometimes the prostate can close off the passageway that carries urine out of the body causing a number of discomforts. This condition is known as prostatism. Some of these problems caused from prostatism include a decrease in the force of the urine stream, having to push the urine out, the feeling that the bladder is constantly full, increased trips to the bathroom during the night and intermittent stopping and starting of the urine stream.

Prostatitis is a condition that describes an inflamed prostate that can be accompanied by pain or discomfort, frequent or infrequent urination and maybe even fever.

Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BHP) refers to the condition of having an enlarged prostate, which is the most common prostate condition. It can also cause pain and discomfort as well as urination problems. BHP can be detected through a blood test because it increases the PSA levels in the blood by two or three times. BHP is not cancerous, but the symptoms are very similar to those of prostate cancer.

Other conditions that can arise in the prostate include impotence, or the inability to have or keep an erection, and urinary incontinence. Incontinence is the loss of bladder control.

The most serious condition of course is prostate cancer. The number of cancerous incidences has been on the rise for the last few decades, as well as the number of deaths. However, the survival rate for men with prostate cancer is also on the rise. The survival rate of the last 20 years has risen from 67% to over 90% because men are getting earlier detection of the cancer.

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) is a protein that is made in the prostate and leaks into the blood continuously. The levels of PSA increase when abnormalities arise and can be detected through a PSA blood test. If cancer is present in the prostate, the PSA levels will be higher than normal. However, increased levels of PSA in the blood do not mean that the problem present is necessarily cancer. It could just be a sign of an enlarged prostate. Like the physical exam, the PSA blood test should be performed annually once a male reaches the age of 50. If you have family members with a history of prostate problems or if you are African-American, you should start to have annual PSA blood tests once you turn 40.

If cancer is suspected, a biopsy can be performed by extracting tissue through a large, hollow needle that can be tested for cancerous cells.

There are a few different tests that can be performed to detect BPH, or an enlarged prostate. Intravenous Pyelograms (IVP) is an X-ray test taken after the patient receives a dye injected into their vein. Then, pictures are taken of the kidneys, bladder and ureter tubes that drain the urine.

A bladder ultrasound is a less invasive way to see how much urine is left after emptying your bladder. If a large amount is left, this could mean that an enlarged prostate is preventing the urine from traveling through the urethra. If the physician feels it necessary, a transrectal ultrasound can be performed to look for gland enlargement, nodules, penetration of a tumor through capsule of the gland or seminal vesicles. Prostate ultrasounds can also be performed to estimate the volume of the prostate gland.

A cytoscopy is a direct visual exam of the bladder and prostate that involves a thin, lighted instrument that a physician looks through as it passes through the urethra and into the bladder.

Obesity or excess body fat is proportionately related to prostate cancer. The consumption of saturated fats can even affect how aggressive a cancerous tumor in the prostate develops. These fats can be found in saturated fats, milk fats, partially hydrogenated oils, tropical oils and substances rich in linoleic acid like corn and safflower oil.

On the contrary, some fats can be neutral or even inhibitors of cancerous cells. These include polyunsaturated oils, monounsaturated oils such as olive and rap seed, and soybean, fish and flax seed oils that are high in linolenic acid. By increasing "good" fat and decreasing "bad" fat, testosterone levels in the prostate can be reduced which also reduces one of the main causes of prostate cancer.

Other foods that help aid in the prevention of prostate cancer include soy, fruits and vegetables and lycopene. Soy contains isoflavones that interfere with the life cycles of prostate cancer cells. They have been shown to almost halt the growth of cancerous cells and cut off the blood supply of growing prostate tumors. High intakes of dietary fibers that can be found in fruits and vegetables can decrease the risk of prostate cancer in the first place. This is also true for lycopene, which has antioxidant properties which concentrate in the prostate and are associated with a decreased risk of contriving prostate cancer. Lycopene can be found in tomatoes.

Sources:
1. www.prostatehealth.org
2. www.umm.edu/prostate/index.html